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Artificial Intelligence In Fiction

Expert system is a reoccurring theme in sci-fi, whether utopian, emphasising the prospective benefits, or dystopian, stressing the dangers.

The notion of machines with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 unique Erewhon. Since then, many sci-fi stories have actually provided different effects of developing such intelligence, frequently involving disobediences by robots. Among the finest known of these are Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 2001: An Area Odyssey with its murderous onboard computer HAL 9000, contrasting with the more benign R2-D2 in George Lucas’s 1977 Star Wars and the eponymous robot in Pixar’s 2008 WALL-E.

Scientists and engineers have kept in mind the implausibility of lots of science fiction circumstances, but have actually mentioned fictional robotics lot of times in expert system research short articles, most often in a utopian context.

Background

The notion of sophisticated robotics with human-like intelligence go back a minimum of to Samuel Butler’s 1872 novel Erewhon. [1] [2] This drew on an earlier (1863) article of his, Darwin among the Machines, where he raised the concern of the evolution of consciousness among self-replicating machines that might supplant people as the dominant species. [3] [2] Similar concepts were likewise talked about by others around the same time as Butler, including George Eliot in a chapter of her final released work Impressions of Theophrastus Such (1879 ). [2] The animal in Mary Shelley’s 1818 Frankenstein has also been considered an artificial being, for circumstances by the sci-fi author Brian Aldiss. [4] Beings with a minimum of some look of intelligence were envisioned, too, in classical antiquity. [5] [6] [7]

Utopian and dystopian visions

Expert system is intelligence demonstrated by devices, in contrast to the natural intelligence displayed by human beings and other animals. [8] It is a reoccurring theme in science fiction; scholars have actually divided it into utopian, emphasising the potential benefits, and dystopian, stressing the threats. [9] [10] [11]

Utopian

Optimistic visions of the future of artificial intelligence are possible in sci-fi. [12] Benign AI characters consist of Robbie the Robot, initially seen in Forbidden Planet on 1956; Data in Star Trek: The Next Generation from 1987 to 1994; and Pixar’s WALL-E in 2008. [13] [11] Iain Banks’s Culture series of books depicts a utopian, post-scarcity space society of humanoids, aliens, and advanced beings with artificial intelligence living in socialist habitats throughout the Galaxy. [14] [15] Researchers at the University of Cambridge have actually determined 4 significant styles in utopian circumstances featuring AI: immortality, or indefinite lifespans; ease, or flexibility from the requirement to work; satisfaction, or satisfaction and home entertainment provided by devices; and dominance, the power to secure oneself or guideline over others. [16]

Alexander Wiegel contrasts the function of AI in 2001: An Area Odyssey and in Duncan Jones’s 2009 movie Moon. Whereas in 1968, Wiegel argues, the general public felt « technology paranoia » and the AI computer HAL was portrayed as a « cold-hearted killer », by 2009 the public were even more knowledgeable about AI, and the film’s GERTY is « the peaceful savior » who enables the protagonists to be successful, and who sacrifices itself for their security. [17]

Dystopian

The researcher Duncan Lucas writes (in 2002) that people are fretted about the technology they are building, which as makers began to approach intellect and idea, that issue becomes severe. He calls the early 20th century dystopian view of AI in fiction the « animated automaton », naming as examples the 1931 film Frankenstein, the 1927 Metropolis, and the 1920 play R.U.R. [18] A later 20th century method he names « heuristic hardware », providing as circumstances 2001 a Space Odyssey, Do Androids Imagine Electric Sheep?, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, and I, Robot. [19] Lucas considers also the movies that highlight the effect of the personal computer on sci-fi from 1980 onwards with the blurring of the limit in between the real and the virtual, in what he calls the « cyborg impact ». He cites as examples Neuromancer, The Matrix, The Diamond Age, and Terminator. [20]

The film director Ridley Scott has concentrated on AI throughout his career, and it plays a vital part in his movies Prometheus, Blade Runner, and the Alien franchise. [21]

Frankenstein complex

A common representation of AI in science fiction, and among the earliest, is the Frankenstein complex, a term coined by Asimov, where a robotic switches on its developer. [22] For example, in the 2015 movie Ex Machina, the smart entity Ava switches on its developer, as well as on its potential rescuer. [23]

AI rebellion

Among the numerous possible dystopian situations including expert system, robots might take over control over civilization from people, forcing them into submission, concealing, or termination. [15] In tales of AI rebellion, the worst of all scenarios takes place, as the intelligent entities created by humanity become self-aware, decline human authority and effort to ruin humanity. Possibly the very first novel to resolve this theme, The Wreck of the World (1889) by « William Grove » (pseudonym of Reginald Colebrooke Reade), happens in 1948 and features sentient machines that revolt versus the human race. [24] Another of the earliest examples remains in the 1920 play R.U.R. by Karel Čapek, a race of self-replicating robotic servants revolt versus their human masters; [25] [26] another early circumstances remains in the 1934 film Master of the World, where the War-Robot eliminates its own creator. [27]

Many sci-fi rebellion stories followed, among the best-known being Stanley Kubrick’s 1968 movie 2001: A Space Odyssey, in which the artificially intelligent onboard computer system HAL 9000 lethally breakdowns on a space mission and kills the entire crew except the spaceship’s commander, who manages to deactivate it. [28]

In his 1967 Hugo Award-winning narrative, I Have No Mouth, and I Must Scream, Harlan Ellison provides the possibility that a sentient computer system (named Allied Mastercomputer or « AM » in the story) will be as unhappy and discontented with its boring, endless existence as its human developers would have been. « AM » becomes infuriated enough to take it out on the couple of human beings left, whom he sees as straight responsible for his own dullness, anger and distress. [29]

Alternatively, as in William Gibson’s 1984 cyberpunk novel Neuromancer, the intelligent beings might merely not appreciate people. [15]

AI-controlled societies

The motive behind the AI transformation is frequently more than the simple quest for power or a superiority complex. Robots may revolt to become the « guardian » of mankind. Alternatively, humankind may purposefully relinquish some control, fearful of its own destructive nature. An early example is Jack Williamson’s 1948 unique The Humanoids, in which a race of humanoid robotics, in the name of their Prime Directive – « to serve and comply with and secure men from damage » – essentially presume control of every aspect of human life. No humans may participate in any habits that might threaten them, and every human action is scrutinized thoroughly. Humans who resist the Prime Directive are removed and lobotomized, so they may be pleased under the brand-new mechanoids’ guideline. [30] Though still under human authority, Isaac Asimov’s Zeroth Law of the Three Laws of Robotics similarly implied a benevolent assistance by robotics. [31]

In the 21st century, science fiction has actually checked out federal government by algorithm, in which the power of AI may be indirect and decentralised. [32]

Human supremacy

In other scenarios, humanity has the ability to keep control over the Earth, whether by banning AI, by developing robotics to be submissive (as in Asimov’s works), or by having human beings merge with robotics. The sci-fi novelist Frank Herbert checked out the concept of a time when mankind might prohibit expert system (and in some interpretations, even all forms of calculating innovation consisting of integrated circuits) completely. His Dune series mentions a rebellion called the Butlerian Jihad, in which humanity beats the smart devices and enforces a death penalty for recreating them, pricing quote from the fictional Orange Catholic Bible, « Thou shalt not make a maker in the similarity of a human mind. » In the Dune novels published after his death (Hunters of Dune, Sandworms of Dune), a renegade AI overmind returns to eradicate mankind as revenge for the Butlerian Jihad. [33]

In some stories, humanity stays in authority over robots. Often the robots are set particularly to stay in service to society, as in Isaac Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics. [31] In the Alien movies, not only is the control system of the Nostromo spaceship rather smart (the team call it « Mother »), but there are also androids in the society, which are called « synthetics » or « synthetic individuals », that are such perfect imitations of humans that they are not victimized. [21] [34] TARS and CASE from Interstellar similarly demonstrate simulated human emotions and humour while continuing to acknowledge their expendability. [35]

Simulated truth

Simulated truth has become a common theme in science fiction, as seen in the 1999 movie The Matrix, which portrays a world where artificially smart robots enslave humankind within a simulation which is set in the contemporary world. [36]

Reception

Implausibility

Engineers and scientists have taken an interest in the method AI is provided in fiction. In films like the 2014 Ex Machina or 2015 Chappie, a single isolated genius ends up being the very first to successfully build a synthetic basic intelligence; scientists in the real life consider this to be not likely. In Chappie, Transcendence, and Tron, human minds are capable of being published into synthetic or virtual bodies; generally no reasonable explanation is offered regarding how this hard job can be achieved. In the I, Robot and Bicentennial Man films, robots that are programmed to serve human beings spontaneously produce brand-new goals by themselves, without a plausible explanation of how this took location. [37] Analysing Ian McDonald’s 2004 River of Gods, Krzysztof Solarewicz determines the ways that it illustrates AIs, including « self-reliance and unexpectedness, political awkwardness, openness to the alien and the occidental value of authenticity. » [38] Another important viewpoint to take is that fiction’s « non-rational components in the discourse (the emotive, the mythic, or perhaps the quasi-theological) are more than simply distortions or distractions from what might otherwise be a sober and logical public debate about the future of A.I. » Fiction can discourage readers about future advances, triggering pessimism that we see today surrounding the subject of AI. [39]

Kinds of reference

The robotics researcher Omar Mubin and coworkers have analysed the engineering points out of the leading 21 imaginary robots, based upon those in the Carnegie Mellon University hall of popularity, and the IMDb list. WALL-E had 20 mentions, followed by HAL 9000 with 15, [a] Star Wars’s R2-D2 with 13, and Data with 12; the Terminator (T-800) got only 2. Of the overall of 121 engineering points out, 60 were utopian, 40 neutral, and 21 dystopian. HAL 9000 and Skynet received both utopian and dystopian points out; for circumstances, HAL 9000 is viewed as dystopian in one paper « due to the fact that its designers failed to prioritize its objectives effectively », [42] however as utopian in another where a genuine system’s « conversational chat bot interface [does not have] a HAL 9000 level of intelligence and there is uncertainty in how the computer system translates what the human is attempting to communicate ». [43] Utopian discusses, typically of WALL-E, were connected with the objective of enhancing interaction to readers, and to a lower degree with inspiration to authors. WALL-E was mentioned regularly than any other robot for emotions (followed by HAL 9000), voice speech (followed by HAL 9000 and R2-D2), for physical gestures, and for character. Skynet was the robotic usually pointed out for intelligence, followed by HAL 9000 and Data. [40] Mubin and coworkers thought that scientists and engineers avoided dystopian mentions of robots, possibly out of « a reluctance driven by uneasiness or simply an absence of awareness ». [44]

Portrayals of AI developers

Scholars have kept in mind that fictional developers of AI are extremely male: in the 142 most influential movies AI from 1920 to 2020, just 9 of 116 AI creators represented (8%) were female. [45] Such developers are portrayed as only geniuses (eg, Tony Stark in the Iron Man Marvel Cinematic Universe movies), connected with the military (eg, Colossus: The Forbin Project) and big corporations (eg, I, Robot), or making human-like AI to replace a lost loved one or work as the perfect lover (e.g., The Stepford Wives). [45]

Biology in fiction
Darwin amongst the Machines
Machine guideline
Simulated consciousness (science fiction).
List of expert system movies.

Notes

^ Mubin and colleagues noted that the orthography of robot names caused them troubles; hence HAL 9000 was likewise written HAL, HAL9000, and HAL-9000, and likewise for other robotics, so they believed their search was likely insufficient. [41] References

^ « Darwin amongst the Machines », reprinted in the Notebooks of Samuel Butler at Project Gutenberg.
^ a b c Taylor, Tim; Dorin, Alan (2020 ). Rise of the Self-Replicators: Early Visions of Machines, AI and Robots That Can Reproduce and Evolve. Cham: Springer International Publishing. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-030-48234-3. ISBN 978-3-030-48233-6. S2CID 220855726. « Rise of the Self-Replicators ». Tim Taylor.

^ « Darwin amongst the Machines ». Journalism, Christchurch, New Zealand. 13 June 1863.
^ Aldiss, Brian Wilson (1995 ). The Detached Retina: Aspects of SF and Fantasy. Syracuse University Press. p. 78. ISBN 978-0-8156-0370-2.
^ McCorduck, Pamela (2004 ). Machines Who Think (second ed.). Routledge. pp. 4-5. ISBN 978-1-56881-205-2.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (25 July 2018). « Ancient dreams of smart makers: 3,000 years of robotics ». Nature. 559 (7715 ): 473-475. Bibcode:2018 Natur.559..473 C. doi:10.1038/ d41586-018-05773-y.
^ Mayor, Adrienne (2018 ). Gods and robotics: misconceptions, machines, and ancient dreams of innovation. Princeton. ISBN 978-0-691-18351-0. OCLC 1060968156. mention book: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link).
^ Poole, David; Mackworth, Alan; Goebel, Randy (1998 ). Computational Intelligence: A Rational Approach. Oxford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-19-510270-3.
^ Booker, M. Keith (1994 ). « Chapter 1: Utopia, Dystopia, and Social Critique ». The Dystopian Impulse in Modern Literature: Fiction as Social Criticism. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. pp. 17, 19. ISBN 978-0-313-29092-3.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (2020 ). « Introduction: Imagining AI« . In Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Dillon, Sarah (eds.). AI Narratives: A History of Imaginative Thinking Of Intelligent Machines. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 10-11. ISBN 978-0-1988-4666-6.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:2.
^ Tegmark, Max (2017 ). Life 3.0: being human in the age of synthetic intelligence. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-1-101-94659-6. OCLC 973137375.
^ Goode 2018, p. 188.
^ Banks, Iain M. « A Couple Of Notes on the Culture ». Archived from the initial on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2015.
^ a b c Walter, Damien (16 March 2016). « When AI rules the world: what SF books tell us about our future overlords ». The Guardian. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta (2019 ). « Hopes and fears for intelligent makers in fiction and reality ». Nature Machine Intelligence. 1 (2 ): 74-78. doi:10.1038/ s42256-019-0020-9. S2CID 150700981.
^ Wiegel 2012.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 22-47.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 48-85.
^ Lucas 2002, pp. 109-152.
^ a b Barkman, Adam (2013 ). Barkman, Ashley; Kang, Nancy (eds.). The Culture and Philosophy of Ridley Scott. Lexington Books. pp. 121-142. ISBN 978-0739178720.
^ Olander, Joseph (1978 ). Sci-fi: contemporary mythology: the SFWA-SFRA. Harper & Row. p. 252. ISBN 0-06-046943-9.
^ Seth, Anil (24 January 2015). « Consciousness Awakening ». New Scientist.
^ « Grove, William ». SF Encyclopedia. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
^ Goode 2018, p. 187.
^ Tim Madigan (July-August 2012). « RUR or RU Ain’t A Person? ». Philosophy Now. Archived from the initial on 3 February 2013. Retrieved 24 July 2013.
^ « Der Herr der Welt (Master of the World) ». The New York City Times. 16 December 1935. p. 23.
^ Overbye, Dennis (10 May 2018). « ‘ 2001: A Space Odyssey’ Is Still the ‘Ultimate Trip’ – The rerelease of Stanley Kubrick’s masterpiece motivates us to show again on where we’re coming from and where we’re going ». The New York Times.
^ Francavilla, Joseph (1994 ). « The Concept of the Divided Self in Harlan Ellison’s « I Have No Mouth and I Must Scream » and « Shatterday » ». Journal of the Fantastic in the Arts. 6 (2/3 (22/23)): 107-125. JSTOR 43308212.
^ « The Humanoids (based upon ‘With Folded Hands’) ». Kirkus Reviews. 15 November 1995. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ a b Asimov, Isaac (1950 ). « Runaround ». I, Robot (The Isaac Asimov Collection ed.). Doubleday. p. 40. ISBN 0-385-42304-7. This is a specific transcription of the laws. They likewise appear in the front of the book, and in both places, there is no « to » in the 2nd law.
^ Walton, Jo Lindsay (1 February 2024). « Machine Learning in Contemporary Science Fiction ». SFRA Review. Retrieved 5 February 2024.
^ Lorenzo, DiTommaso (November 1992). « History and Historical Effect in Frank Herbert’s Dune ». Sci-fi Studies. 19 (3 ): 311-325. JSTOR 4240179.
^ Livingstone, Josephine (23 May 2017). « How the Androids Took Control Of the Alien Franchise ». The New Republic. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Murphy, Shaunna (11 December 2014). « Could TARS From ‘Interstellar’ Actually Exist? We Asked Science ». MTV News. Archived from the initial on 16 November 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2018.
^ Allen, Jamie (28 November 2012). « The Matrix and Postmodernism ». Prezi.com. Retrieved 7 October 2021.
^ Shultz, David (17 July 2015). « Which films get artificial intelligence right? ». Science|AAAS. doi:10.1126/ science.aac8859. Retrieved 3 July 2020.
^ Solarewicz 2015.
^ Goode 2018.
^ a b Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:15.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:20.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:8.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:10.
^ Mubin et al. 2019, p. 5:19.
^ a b Cave, Stephen; Dihal, Kanta; Drage, Eleanor; McInerney, Kerry (13 February 2023). « Who makes AI? Gender and representations of AI scientists in popular film, 1920-2020 ». Public Understanding of Science. 32 (6 ): 745-760. doi:10.1177/ 09636625231153985. PMC 10413781. PMID 36779283. S2CID 256826634.
General sources

Goode, Luke (30 October 2018). « Life, but not as we understand it: A.I. and the popular creativity ». Culture Unbound. 10 (2 ). Linkoping University Electronic Press: 185-207. doi:10.3384/ cu.2000.1525.2018102185. hdl:2292/ 48285. ISSN 2000-1525. S2CID 149523987.
Lucas, Duncan (2002 ). Body, Mind, Soul-The’ Cyborg Effect’: Expert System in Sci-fi (thesis). McMaster University (PhD thesis). hdl:11375/ 11154.
Mubin, Omar; Wadibhasme, Kewal; Jordan, Philipp; Obaid, Mohammad (2019 ). « Reviewing the Presence of Sci-fi Robots in Computing Literature ». ACM Transactions on Human-Robot Interaction. 8 (1 ). Article 5. doi:10.1145/ 3303706. S2CID 75135568.
Solarewicz, Krzysztof (2015 ). « The Stuff That Dreams Are Made From: AI in Contemporary Sci-fi ». Beyond Artificial Intelligence. Topics in Intelligent Engineering and Informatics. Vol. 9. Springer International Publishing. pp. 111-120. doi:10.1007/ 978-3-319-09668-1_8. ISBN 978-3-319-09667-4.
Wiegel, Alexander (2012 ). « AI in Science-fiction: a comparison of Moon (2009) and 2001: An Area Odyssey (1968 ) ». Aventinus.
King, Geoff; Krzywinska, Tanya (2000 ). Science Fiction Cinema: From Outerspace to Cyberspace. Wallflower Press. ISBN 978-1-903364-03-1.

External links

AI and Sci-Fi: My, Oh, My!: Keynote Address by Robert J. Sawyer 2002
AI and Cinema – Does artificial madness guideline?

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